Geothermal energy, a nearly inexhaustible source of clean energy, has the potential to transform global power generation. While countries like Iceland have successfully tapped into geothermal resources, the challenge lies in accessing the vast amounts of heat stored beneath the Earth’s surface. Currently, only 32 countries operate geothermal power plants, and less than 700 plants worldwide generate around 97 Terawatt hours (TWh) of electricity annually—a fraction of its potential. Experts believe geothermal could contribute up to 1,400 TWh annually by 2050, along with billions of TWh of heat.

Iceland, home to over 200 volcanoes and numerous hot springs, serves as a model, using geothermal energy to heat 85% of homes and generate 25% of the country’s electricity. However, tapping into this clean energy source is not so straightforward elsewhere, where drilling deep enough to reach the high temperatures necessary for power generation remains a major hurdle. While the Earth emits immense energy, its practical extraction is limited by technological and financial barriers.

In places like Iceland, geothermal wells can reach temperatures of up to 350°C (662°F) at depths of 1.5 miles (2.5 km), with some experimental wells in Reykjanes reaching superheated fluids as hot as 600°C (1,112°F). These high temperatures are essential for generating electricity, but drilling to these depths requires costly and complex technology. The challenge intensifies in regions like the UK, where the temperature at 5 km deep is around 140°C (284°F). To generate power, temperatures must exceed 374°C (705°F) to reach a state called supercritical, where water becomes a highly energetic substance capable of generating up to 10 times the energy of conventional geothermal wells.

Traditional drilling methods, even with advanced materials like diamond-tipped bits, struggle to reach these depths due to the extreme pressures and temperatures that cause frequent failures. In 2009, a drilling team in Iceland accidentally tapped into supercritical conditions, encountering highly acidic steam and uncontrollable pressures that led to a two-year hiatus before the well could be sealed.

To overcome these challenges, innovative companies and researchers are developing new drilling technologies. Quaise Energy, a spin-off from MIT, is pioneering millimetre-wave drilling, using high-frequency microwave beams to vaporize rock, allowing for deeper, more efficient drilling. Though still in laboratory testing, the technology could revolutionize geothermal energy extraction, with potential field trials starting in 2025.

Meanwhile, GA Drilling, based in Slovakia, is working on pulse plasma drilling, which disintegrates rock using high-energy electric discharges without melting it. This method reduces the need for frequent equipment replacement, potentially allowing access to geothermal power at depths of 10 km or more. These breakthroughs could unlock geothermal energy for regions once thought unreachable, offering a sustainable and reliable power source to meet global energy demands.

OpenAI marked its second year of ChatGPT with significant achievements and challenges, setting the stage for an even more ambitious 2024. The company, which launched its first version of ChatGPT on November 30, 2022, quickly became a symbol of the burgeoning field of generative artificial intelligence (genAI). As 2024 unfolds, OpenAI has introduced a range of new developments, from advanced AI models to an innovative search engine, all while grappling with internal tensions and legal battles.

In 2024, OpenAI released notable advancements, including GPT-4, which significantly enhanced performance across text, voice, and vision tasks. Additionally, the company launched o1, a new series of models designed to tackle complex challenges in fields like science, coding, and mathematics. A few weeks ago, OpenAI also introduced SearchGPT, a browser extension that offers “fast, timely answers” directly from web sources, bypassing traditional search engines altogether.

Despite these successes, OpenAI has faced internal struggles. Co-founder Ilya Sutskever resigned, and the company’s team focused on researching superintelligence was disbanded. Furthermore, OpenAI is dealing with multiple lawsuits from U.S.-based news organizations over alleged copyright infringement.

Looking ahead, OpenAI has its sights set on a “giant breakthrough” for 2025. During a Reddit AMA in October, founder Sam Altman and his team outlined their plans to develop “AI agents”—autonomous systems that can perform tasks independently. These agents would allow companies to automate complex processes using large language models (LLMs), which OpenAI’s competitors, such as Google Cloud’s Vertex AI agents, are already working on. However, opinions on these agents remain divided, with some seeing them as a game-changer, while others express concerns about giving AI too much control.

As for upcoming releases, Altman hinted at exciting developments, although he clarified that there would be no “ChatGPT-5” this year. The priority is on refining existing models like GPT-4 and o1. Reports suggest that OpenAI’s next model, Orion, may arrive in December for select partners. This model is expected to be more powerful than its predecessors, with CEO Tadao Nagasaki claiming it will be “100 times more powerful” than GPT-4.

In addition to AI agents, OpenAI is working on Sora, an AI text-to-video model, although its release has been delayed. The company is also refining the next version of DALL-E, the image-generating software, but a release date remains uncertain.

Looking to the future, experts like Kate Devlin from King’s College London warn of potential industry limitations, such as compute and energy shortages. OpenAI may consider scaling down to smaller, more resource-efficient models, possibly focusing on specialized applications in fields like law or healthcare.

As OpenAI prepares for its third year, the company faces both immense opportunities and challenges, from the development of autonomous AI agents to navigating a rapidly evolving industry. The next steps for ChatGPT and its parent company will shape the future of artificial intelligence.

The ZX Spectrum, a groundbreaking 8-bit home computer, holds a special place in the history of technology as a catalyst for the UK’s home computing boom in the 1980s. Released in April 1982, the computer—with its rubber keys and distinctive rainbow design—ushered in an era of programming and gaming accessibility for millions.

The Spectrum, often affectionately called “The Speccy,” was the brainchild of Sir Clive Sinclair and his team. Priced at £125 for the 16k model and £175 for the 48k version, it became a staple under Christmas trees across the UK. Its colourful graphics, in contrast to the monochrome display of its predecessor, the ZX81, brought games like Manic Miner and Jet Set Willy to life on TV screens.

A new documentary, The Rubber-Keyed Wonder, explores the ZX Spectrum’s profound influence. Co-director Anthony Caulfield noted that the device arrived at a time when the idea of home computing was revolutionary. “Computers were in mainframes, requiring air conditioning and millions of dollars. The concept of a computer in your home was completely new,” he explained.

Manufactured in Dundee

The Spectrum was manufactured at the Timex factory in Dundee, Scotland, a city that would later become a hub for gaming innovation. Sinclair selected the facility for its skilled workforce, transitioning from watchmaking to technology. At its peak, the factory produced one ZX Spectrum every four seconds.

This local production spurred creativity among residents. “People got access to Spectrums through stores and even via the ‘back door’ of the factory,” said Mark Ettle, now head of Dundee-based Cobra Mobile. “It kick-started the imagination of what the world could be.”

Ettle recalls the Spectrum’s ability to make arcade-style gaming accessible at home while encouraging programming exploration. Games such as Ant Attack, Skool Daze, and Sabre Wulf became cultural phenomena. Ettle, an early expert at Sabre Wulf, said, “I was one of the first in the UK to complete the game and received a free game as a reward.”

Legacy of Innovation

The Spectrum’s impact extended beyond gaming. Mike Dailly, co-founder of Dundee’s DMA Design—the studio behind Lemmings and Grand Theft Auto—said his journey began with a ZX Spectrum. “My mum’s work needed a database, so they got me a Spectrum,” he said. “I spent more time tinkering and writing programs than playing games.”

Dailly emphasized the device’s role in establishing Dundee as a global gaming centre. “The entire original DMA Design team started on Spectrums,” he shared.

Today, the ZX Spectrum is remembered not only as a gaming console but as a cultural icon that inspired a generation of developers, reshaping the world of computing and entertainment.